اريد مقال عن "المال " بسرعة [الأرشيف] - منتدى الفيزياء التعليمي

محبة الرسول

03-15-2010, 08:53 PM

Money is anything that is generally accepted as payment (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Payment) for goods and services (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Goods_and_services) and repayment of debts (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Debts).[1] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-0)[2] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-1) The main functions of money are distinguished as: a medium of exchange (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Medium_of_exchange), a unit of account (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Unit_of_account), a store of value (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Store_of_value), and occasionally, a standard of deferred payment (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Standard_of_deferred_payment).[3] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-mankiw-2)[4] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-greco-3)
Money originated as commodity money (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Commodity_money), but nearly all contemporary money systems are based on fiat money (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Fiat_money).[3] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-mankiw-2) Fiat money is without value as a physical commodity, and derives its value by being declared by a government to be legal tender (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Legal_tender); that is, it must be accepted as a form of payment within the boundaries of the country, for "all debts, public and private".
The money supply (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Money_supply) of a country consists of currency (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Currency) (banknotes and coins) and demand deposits (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Demand_deposits) or ’bank money’ (the balance held in checking accounts (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Checking_accounts) and savings accounts (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Savings_accounts)). These demand deposits (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Demand_deposit) usually account for a much larger part of the money supply than currency.[5] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-4)[6] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-5) Bank money (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Bank_money) is intangible and exists only in the form of various bank records. Despite being intangible, bank money still performs the basic functions of money, being generally accepted as a form of payment.[7 (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-6)
Main article: History of money (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/History_of_money)
The use of barter (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Barter)-like methods may date back to at least 100,000 years ago, though there is no evidence of a society or economy that relied primarily on barter.[8] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-7) Instead, non-monetary societies operated largely along the principles of gift economics (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Gift_economics). When barter did occur, it was usually between either complete strangers or potential enemies.[9] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-8)
Many cultures around the world eventually developed the use of commodity money (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Commodity_money). The shekel (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Shekel) was originally both a unit of currency (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Currency) and a unit of weight.[10] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-9). The first usage of the term came from Mesopotamia (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Mesopotamia) circa 3000 BC. Societies in the Americas, Asia, Africa and Australia used ****l money (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/****l_money) – usually, the ****l of the money cowry (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Cowry) (Cypraea moneta) were used. According to Herodotus (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Herodotus), and most modern scholars, the Lydians (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Lydians) were the first people to introduce the use of gold and silver coin (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Silver_coin).[11] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-10) It is thought that these first stamped coins (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Coins) were minted around 650–600 BC.[12] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-11)
The system of commodity money (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Commodity_money) eventually evolved into a system of representative money (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Representative_money).[citation needed (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)] This occurred because gold and silver merchants or banks would issue receipts to their depositors – redeemable for the commodity money (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Commodity_money) deposited. Eventually, these receipts became generally accepted as a means of payment and were used as money. Paper money or banknotes (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Banknotes) were first used in China (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/China) during the Song Dynasty (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Song_Dynasty). These banknotes, known as "jiaozi (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Jiaozi_(currency))" evolved from promissory notes (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Promissory_notes) that had been used since the 7th century. However, they did not displace commodity money, and were used alongside coins. Banknotes were first issued in Europe by Stockholms Banco (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Stockholms_Banco) in 1661, and were again also used alongside coins. The gold standard (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Gold_standard), a monetary system (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Monetary_system) where the medium of exchange are paper notes that are convertible into pre-set, fixed quantities of gold, replaced the use of gold coins as currency in the 17th-19th centuries in Europe. These gold standard notes were made legal tender (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Legal_tender), and redemption into gold coins was discouraged. By the beginning of the 20th century almost all countries had adopted the gold standard, backing their legal tender notes with fixed amounts of gold.
After World War II (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/World_War_II), at the Bretton Woods Conference (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Bretton_Woods_Conference), most countries adopted fiat currencies that were fixed to the US dollar (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/US_dollar). The US dollar was in turn fixed to gold. In 1971 the US government suspended the convertibility of the US dollar to gold. After this many countries de-pegged their currencies from the US dollar, and most of the world’s currencies became unbacked by anything except the governments’ fiat of legal tender.
Etymology

The word "money" is believed to originate from a temple of Hera (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Hera), located on Capitoline (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Capitoline), one of Rome’s seven hills. In the ancient world Hera was often associated with money. The temple of Juno Moneta (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Juno_Moneta) at Rome was the place where the mint of Ancient Rome was located.[13] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-12) The name "Juno" may derive from the Etruscan goddess Uni (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Uni_(mythology)) (which means "the one", "unique", "unit", "union", "united") and "Moneta" either from the Latin word "monere" (remind, warn, or instruct) or the Greek word "moneres" (alone, unique).
In the Western world, a prevalent term for coin-money has been specie (http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/specie), stemming from Latin in specie, meaning ’in kind’.[14] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-13)
Functions

The economy: concept and history (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Economy)
Business and Economics Portal (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Portal:Business_and_economics)This box: view (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Template:Economics_sidebar) • talk (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Template_talk:Economics_sidebar) • edit (http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Economics_ sidebar&action=edit)

In the past, money was generally considered to have the following four main functions, which are summed up in a rhyme (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Rhyme) found in older economics ****books: "Money is a matter of functions four, a medium (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Medium), a measure (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Measure), a standard (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Standard), a store." That is, money functions as a medium of exchange (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Medium_of_exchange), a unit of account (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Unit_of_account), a standard of deferred payment (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Standard_of_deferred_payment), and a store of value (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Store_of_value).[4] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-greco-3) However, most modern ****books now list only three functions, that of medium of exchange (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Medium_of_exchange), unit of account (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Unit_of_account), and store of value (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Store_of_value), not considering a standard of deferred payment as a distinguished function, but rather subsuming it in the others.[3] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-mankiw-2)[15] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-krugman-14)[16] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-abel_bernanke-15)
There have been many historical disputes regarding the combination of money’s functions, some arguing that they need more separation and that a single unit is insufficient to deal with them all. One of these arguments is that the role of money as a medium of exchange (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Medium_of_exchange) is in conflict with its role as a store of value (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Store_of_value): its role as a store of value requires holding it without spending, whereas its role as a medium of exchange requires it to circulate.[4] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-greco-3) Others argue that storing of value is just deferral of the exchange, but does not diminish the fact that money is a medium of exchange that can be transported both across space and time.[17] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-16) The term ’financial capital’ is a more general and inclusive term for all liquid instruments, whether or not they are a uniformly recognized tender.
Medium of exchange

Main article: Medium of exchange (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Medium_of_exchange)
When money is used to intermediate the exchange of goods and services, it is performing a function as a medium of exchange. It thereby avoids the inefficiencies of a barter system, such as the ’double coincidence of wants (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Double_coincidence_of_wants)’ problem.
Unit of account

Main article: Unit of account (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Unit_of_account)
A unit of account is a standard numerical unit of measurement of the market value of goods, services, and other transactions. Also known as a "measure" or "standard" of relative worth and deferred payment, a unit of account is a necessary prerequisite for the formulation of commercial agreements that involve debt. To function as a ’unit of account’, whatever is being used as money must be:
Divisible into smaller units without loss of value; precious ****ls can be coined from bars, or melted down into bars again.
Fungible (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Fungibility): that is, one unit or piece must be perceived as equivalent to any other, which is why diamonds (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Diamond), works of art (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Art) or real estate (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Real_estate) are not suitable as money.
A specific weight, or measure, or size to be verifiably countable. For instance, coins are often made with ridges around the edges, so that any removal of material from the coin (lowering its commodity value) will be easy to detect.
Store of value

Main article: Store of value (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Store_of_value)
To act as a store of value, a money must be able to be reliably saved, stored, and retrieved – and be predictably usable as a medium of exchange when it is retrieved. The value of the money must also remain stable over time. In that sense, inflation (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Inflation) by reducing the value of money, diminishes the ability of the money to function as a store of value.[3] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-mankiw-2)
Standard of deferred payment

Main article: Standard of deferred payment (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Standard_of_deferred_payment)
While standard of deferred payment is distinguished by some ****s,[4] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-greco-3) particularly older ones, other ****s subsume this under other functions.[3] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-mankiw-2)[15] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-krugman-14)[16] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-abel_bernanke-15) A "standard of deferred payment" is an accepted way to settle a debt (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Debt) – a unit in which debts are denominated, and the status of money as legal tender (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Legal_tender), in those jurisdictions which have this concept, states that it may function for the discharge of debts. When debts are denominated in money, the real value of debts may change due to inflation (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Inflation) and deflation (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Deflation), and for sovereign and international debts via debasement (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Debasement) and devaluation (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Devaluation).
Money supply

Main article: Money supply (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Money_supply)
In economics, money is a broad term that refers to any financial instrument (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Instrument_(finance)) that can fulfill the functions of money (detailed above). These financial instruments together are collectively referred to as the money supply (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Money_supply) of an economy. Since the money supply consists of various financial instruments (usually currency, demand deposits and various other types of deposits), the amount of money in an economy is measured by adding together these financial instruments creating a monetary aggregate (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Monetary_aggregate). Modern monetary theory distinguishes among different types of monetary aggregates, using a categorization system that focuses on the liquidity of the financial instrument used as money.
Market liquidity

Main article: Market liquidity (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Market_liquidity)
Market liquidity describes how easily an item can be traded for another item, or into the common currency within an economy. Money is the most liquid asset because it is universally recognised and accepted as the common currency. In this way, money gives consumers the freedom (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Freedom_(philosophy)) to trade goods and services easily without having to barter.
Liquid financial instruments are easily tradable (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Tradable) and have low transaction costs (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Transaction_cost). There should be no (or minimal) spread (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Bid/offer_spread) between the prices to buy and sell the instrument being used as money.
Measures of money

The money supply is the amount of financial instruments within a specific economy available for purchasing goods or services. The money supply is usually measured as three escalating categories M1, M2 and M3. The categories grow in size with M1 being currency (coins and bills) and checking account deposits. M2 is currency, checking account deposits and savings account deposits, and M3 is M2 plus time deposits (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Time_deposit). M1 includes only the most liquid financial instruments, and M3 relatively illiquid instruments.
Another measure of money, M0, is also used, although unlike the other measures, it does not represent actual purchasing power (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Purchasing_power) by firms and households in the economy. M0 is base money (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Base_money), or the amount of money actually issued by the central bank (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Central_bank) of a country. It is measured as currency plus deposits of banks and other institutions at the central bank. M0 is also the only money that can satisfy the reserve requirements (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Reserve_requirements) of commercial banks (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Commercial_bank).
Types of money

Money is an abstraction (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Abstraction), idea (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Idea) or concept (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Concept), token instances (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Type-token_distinction) of which are the physical bills (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Banknote) or coins (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Coin) which are carried and traded. Currently, most modern monetary systems are based on fiat money. However, for most of history, almost all money was commodity money, such as gold and silver coins. As economies developed, commodity money was eventually replaced by representative money (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Representative_money), such as the gold standard (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Gold_standard), as traders found the physical transportation of gold and silver burdensome. Fiat currencies gradually took over in the last hundred years, especially since the breakup of the Bretton Woods system (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Bretton_Woods_system) in the early 1970s.
Commodity money

Main article: Commodity money (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Commodity_money)
Many items have been used as commodity money (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Commodity_money) such as naturally scarce precious ****ls (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Precious_****l), conch ****ls (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Conch_****l), barley (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Barley), beads etc., as well as many other things that are thought of as having value (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Intrinsic_value). Commodity money value comes from the commodity out of which it is made. The commodity itself constitutes the money, and the money is the commodity.[18] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-Mises-17) Examples of commodities that have been used as mediums of exchange include gold (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Gold), silver (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Silver), copper (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Copper), rice (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Rice), salt, peppercorns, large stones, decorated belts, ****ls, alcohol, cigarettes, cannabis, candy, etc. These items were sometimes used in a metric of perceived value in conjunction to one another, in various commodity valuation or Price System (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Price_System) economies. Use of commodity money is similar to barter, but a commodity money provides a simple and automatic unit of account (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Unit_of_account) for the commodity which is being used as money. Although some gold coins (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Gold_coins) such as the Krugerrand (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Krugerrand) are considered legal tender (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Legal_tender), there is no record of their face value on either side of the coin. The rationale for this is that emphasis is laid on their direct link to the prevailing value of their fine gold (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Millesimal_fineness) content.[19] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-18) American Eagles (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/American_Gold_Eagle) are imprinted with their gold content and legal tender face value (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Face_value).[20] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-usmint.gov-19)
Representative money

Main article: Representative money (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Representative_money)
In 1875 economist William Stanley Jevons (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/William_Stanley_Jevons) described what he called "representative money (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Representative_money)," i.e., money that consists of token coins (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Token_coin), or other physical tokens such as certificates, that can be reliably exchanged for a fixed quantity of a commodity such as gold (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Gold) or silver (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Silver). The value of representative money stands in direct and fixed relation to the commodity that backs it, while not itself being composed of that commodity.[21] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-Jevons-20)
Fiat money

Main article: Fiat money (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Fiat_money)
Fiat money or fiat currency is money whose value is not derived from any intrinsic value or guarantee that it can be converted into a valuable commodity (such as gold). Instead, it has value only by government order (fiat). Usually, the government declares the fiat currency (typically notes and coins from a central bank, such as the Federal Reserve System (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Federal_Reserve_System) in the U.S.) to be legal tender (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Legal_tender), making it unlawful to not accept the fiat currency as a means of repayment for all debts, public and private.[22] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-21)[23] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-22)
Some bullion coins (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Bullion_coins) such as the Australian Gold Nugget (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Australian_Gold_Nugget) and American Eagle (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/American_Gold_Eagle) are legal tender, however, they trade based on the market price (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Market_price) of the ****l content as a commodity (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Commodity), rather than their legal tender face value (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Face_value) (which is usually only a small fraction of their bullion value).[20] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-usmint.gov-19)[24] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-23)
Fiat money, if physically represented in the form of currency (paper or coins) can be accidentally damaged or destroyed. However, fiat money has an advantage over representative or commodity money, in that the same laws that created the money can also define rules for its replacement in case of damage or destruction. For example, the U.S. government will replace mutilated Federal Reserve notes (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Note) (U.S. fiat money) if at least half of the physical note can be reconstructed, or if it can be otherwise proven to have been destroyed.[25] (http://www.hazemsakeek.com/vb/#cite_note-24) By contrast, commodity money which has been lost or destroyed cannot be recovered.